Basic Considerations

The questionnaire is a sophisticated instrument that helps us reveal complex social and social-psychological phenomena.

When designing the questionnaire, it is imperative to take into account psychological, semantic, and sociolinguistic factors.

It is also necessary to explore the so-called “context-effects”, as well as the semantic nuances of the words and expressions we use to articulate our questions.

Introductory Questions

As Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann used to say, the questionnaire must have good manners. It is important to use “Ice-breaking” questions to help create a positive connection with the interviewee. These questions may be irrelevant for the actual research.

Always avoid starting questions that may be answered with “no” by most respondents.

Examples of ice-breaking question:

There are people who are more energetic early in the morning. Other people perform better in the evening. Which group do you belong to?

• Early in the morning
• Rather in the evening
• Undecided

Are you, in general, an optimistic or pessimistic person?

• Optimistic
• Pessimistic
• I can’t tell

Distracting questions

Respondents feel the need to offer a coherent image of themselves. They also tend to give answers they think may please the interviewer.

When we presume that certain questions can influence each other, we need to introduce other questions that might break the mental connection.

Graphic elements are ideal to distract the attention.

Context Effects

Recency Effect

Interviewees tend to favor the last alternative given to them, independently of the contents.

The next example shows you the variation of the answers depending on the the order those answers where presented.

In a small town, the municipal council plans to allow the construction of a new factory. However, the majority of the population is against it. The judge decided that the population couldn’t do anything to prevent the construction. In a public event, two speakers discuss the issue. Which of the opinions would you agree with?

	1	2
The municipal council was democratically elected by the citizens of the town and has the right to go ahead with the construction of the factory.	46%	59%
The municipal council should respect the will of population and stop the building project of the factory.	26%	35%

Primacy Effect

The primacy effect is exactly the opposite and occurs seldom. In this case, the first alternative is favored.

That happens mostly when the question and the answer alternatives are short.

The longer questions and answer alternatives, the more probable the recency effect.

Disadvantage of the middle alternative

In questions with 3 answer alternative, the middle position, independently of contents is frequently ignored.

Do you think that the government should make easier for married couples to get divorced? Or more difficult? Or should the law remain the same?

easier	23%
more difficult	36%
the same	41%

easier	23%
the same	29%
More difficult	46%

Indirect Questions

There are delicate topics people don’t feel confortable discussing, such as …

• hygiene,
• political correctness,
• income,
• religious questions,
• embarrassing situations,
• fear of isolation,
• …

In that case is recommendable to state the question you want to ask indirectly.

Equality versus Performance

Now I’d like to tell you a story: two secretaries are the same age and do practically the same work. Yet, one of them earns $100 more a month. The second secretary goes to her boss to complain about the situation. The boss tells her that the other one is more reliable and work faster than she. Do you think it is fair that one secretary earns more than the other? Or do you think it is unfair?

• Fair
• Unfair
• Undecided

fair	66%
unfair	24%
undecided	10%

To identify people who pay special attention to tidiness and aesthetics

Have you recently noticed that someone was wearing dirty shoes? Or are you not aware of it?

• Yes, I noticed
• No, I am not aware

Yes, I noticed	41%
No, I am not aware	59%

Threat of Isolation

I’d like to know your opinion about following case. Recently, in a public forum about nuclear energy in Germany held at the Gutenberg-University, one of the speakers was hooted very badly by the audience. Do you think that this speaker was in favor of or against nuclear energy?

In favor	62%
against	15%
Impossible to say	23%

Social desirability

There are people who believe that it is damaging for hair and skin to wash their hair too often. Could you please tell me when did you wash your hair for the last time?

Yesterday	19%
The day before yesterday	33%
A couple of days before	39%
A couple of weeks before	8%
I never wash my Hair	1%

Semantic Equivalents

Sometimes, expressions that have the exactly same meaning may be perceived differently by our audience, which may distort the interpretation of our outcomes.

Examples:

Recently it has been stated that every fourth German has too little self-confidence. Does this proportion seem like much to you, or not that much?

In parallel surveys, this question was formulated alternatively:

… one-fourth of all Germans …

… one out of four Germans

… approximately 25% of all Germans

	Every fourth	One-fourth	One out of four	25%
much	49%	45%	38%	34%
Not that much	15%	47%	53%	54%
undecided	11%	8%	9%	12%

Do you think that the U.S. should prohibit the demonstrations against democracy?

Do you think that the U.S. should not allow demonstrations against democracy?

	prohibit	not allow
prohibit / not allow	21%	48%
not prohibit / allow	79%	52%